White Rhinoceros
SWAHILI NAME: Kifaru
SCIENTIFIC NAME:
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Rhinocerotidae
Genus: Ceratotherium
Specie: simum
HISTORY:
The word rhinoceros is derived from Greek, meaning nose horn which is their most distinctive feature. The white rhinoceros derives its scientific name, Ceratotherium simum from the Greek cerato, meaning horn; thorium, meaning wild beast and simum meaning flat nosed.
If they look ancient to you, that is because they are the surviving representatives, along with elephants and hippos, of a biological category that was once much more diverse and abundant, known as mega herbivores.
The fossil record tells us that at one time there were at least 200 species of rhinos in 3 different families. Some were small and others were huge. The Indricothere Paraceratherium transouralicum, an ancient member of the rhinoceros family grew to an enormous size and is considered the largest land mammal to have ever existed, weighing in at about 15 metric tons. They had long legs and long necks and were able to browse the tallest trees like todays giraffe; they also did not have a horn. It is thought that they fought using their necks the same way giraffes do today. The Paraceratherium were considered running rhinos with a more slender build and flexible foot and a lighter build than today's rhino. They lived from Mongolia westward across the grassless scrubby plains of Asia during the Oligocene period, 30 to 35 million years ago.
Two million years ago there were climatic changes in vegetation that split the white rhinos range into two separate geographical areas. Over time this resulted in genetic changes that today define the differences between the northern and southern white rhinoceros.
50 million years ago many forms of rhinos existed and until 10,000 years ago the wooly rhino roamed throughout Europe. Todays African rhinos diverged from a common ancestor about 5 million years ago and took on their present day form. Of the 5 remaining species of rhinos, the Sumatran divergence took place 20 million years ago and the Indian and Javan, 10 million years ago.
Today there is 1 family with 4 genera and 5 species of rhinos remaining: They are the White, Black, Javan, Sumatran and Indian/Nepalese. Of the five species, the Southern White (Ceratotherium simum) subspecies or race is the most plentiful at about 11,600 animals while the Northern White (Ceratotherium simum cottoni) is down to about 15 animals in the wild (10 in captivity). The Northern white, along with the Javan and Sumatran are on the brink of extinction.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
The common name White Rhinoceros is confusing and probably originated when early English settlers misinterpreted the Afrikaans word weit for white. Weit means wide; therefore it has nothing to do with the color of the animal. The white rhinoceros is also referred to as the square lipped rhinoceros.
The white rhinoceros is an odd-toed ungulate. Its footprint is often referred to as being shaped like the ace of clubs. After the elephant, the rhinoceros is the largest living land mammal and it can weigh up to 6,000 pounds (3 metric tons). They are 5 - 6 feet (1.5 1.8m) tall at the shoulder and have a head and body length of 12.5 15 ft. (3.8 5m). Only the Indian rhino is similar in size to the white rhino.
It is a grazing animal with a wide flat lip that does not have the prehensile pointed lip of the black rhino. This is
one of the best ways to tell the 2 species apart. The upper lip of the white rhino is soft and sensitive while the lower lip has a hardened edge. The powerful lip muscles make it easy to crop off tufts of grass. The white and black rhinos do not have canines or incisors; instead they both use their lips when grazing or browsing. They grind the vegetation between 2 molars on the top and two on the bottom of their jaws and have a complex gut to digest poor quality forage. The white rhino also has a prominent hump on the back of its neck, which the black rhino is missing. This hump contains the mass of muscles that are needed to raise its large heavy head which is normally in a position close to the ground.
The white rhino has a normally grey slate colored skin and very little hair on its body compared to most mammals, though if you were to rub your hand over its skin you would feel the course sparse hairs. The most visible hair is along the edges of its ears and at the end of its tail. The rhinoceros has weak vision and is able to see a moving person from 90 to 150 ft (30 50m) but is unable to detect a person standing still at 100 feet. This is one of the reasons poachers today and hunters in the past who stay down wind and approach quietly, can get within close range of the animal. Rhinos have an excellent sense of smell. The nasal cavity takes up more space in the skull than that of the brain. They also have a very good sense of hearing.
The rhinos horn sits on a roughened dome formed by the nasal bone and is not part of the skull. It is made up of an agglomeration of fibers made of keratin and it does not have a bony core like those found in cattle, antelope or sheep. If it is torn off, a new horn begins to grow and in young animals it may be replaced completely They have a continually growing horn. The biggest horns of all rhino species belong to the white rhino. The horn can reach up to 79 inches (200 cm) in length. The white rhino has two horns; the front or anterior horn is longer than the back or posterior horn. Generally the front horn ranges from 37 40 inches (94 102 cm) in the northern subspecies and 37 -79 inches (94 201 cm) in the southern subspecies. The posterior horn will measure up to 22 inches (55 cm) long. The longest recorded length for the front horn is 62 (24.7cm) and for the back horn is 53 (20.8cm). An average pair of white rhino horns only weighs about 13 pounds (6 kg). The makeup of the fibers that are compressed into the horn can be seen at its base and appear as individual tubular filaments
DISTRIBUTION:
There are two living subspecies of white rhino; the northern white rhino and the southern white rhino. DNA analysis has confirmed that they are genetically distinct species. There were over 2,000 northern white rhinos in 1960, but today there is only an extremely small population in the wild (about 15 animals as of Sept. 2004, due to poaching incidents that halved their population in 2003 and 2004. There are only 11 in captivity). Today, the northern species is found only in Garamba National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). A hundred years ago their range included parts of Uganda, DRC, Sudan, Chad and Central African Republic.
The southern white rhino is the most numerous of all the worlds rhino taxa and its main stronghold is in South Africa. The approximately 11,600 southern white rhinos have a discontinuous range that has been reduced to national parks, private conservancies and other protected areas. Historically they have had a much more restricted distribution that the black rhino. 94% of the wild white rhinos live in South Africa, 4% live in Botswana (reintroduced), Namibia (reintroduced), Swaziland (reintroduced), Zambia (introduced), Zimbabwe (reintroduced) and the remaining 2% are located in Kenya (introduced), Tanzania (introduced) and the Ivory Coast (introduced). Altogether, there are 248 discrete populations, 10 of which are considered key to the species survival. The largest single population of over 1,600 animals is in Hluhluwe/Umfolozi Game Reserve in South Africa; a location that proved to be critical to their survival as a species.
HABITAT:
White rhinos are found on savanna grasslands and in the savanna woodlands that have interspersed grassy clearings. Access to water is important because they prefer to drink daily.
BEHAVIOR:
The white rhino has a very complex social structure compared to other rhino species.
The white rhino has a mild and inoffensive personality compared to the black rhino. They are very curious and tend to move away from conflict rather than confront it with attack. Sometimes a mock charge will take place to scare off intruders. Most people view the white rhino as a slow lumbering animal, however, they can turn 180 degrees at the blink of an eye and when necessary can run remarkably fast, but not for long periods of time. It can also throw its head up from the normal grazing position very quickly. The mass of powerful muscles forming the hump above the shoulders allows for this quick movement.
If a large group of rhinos is alarmed, they stand with their behinds together in a circle so that their heads point outward in all directions.
They are dependent on water and will drink up to 170 pints (80 liters) of water a day. Rhinos have no sweat glands. To cool off they will wallow in mud if available and they must drink water to replenish the body's natural losses. Given the chance, they will drink twice a day, but if necessary they can go 4 or 5 days without visiting a waterhole in the wild. They depend on the waterholes for wallowing and coating their skin in mud which helps keep the skin cool (regulating body temperature) and dried on mud protects them from biting flies and parasites, like ticks. Even though they have very thick skin, the blood vessels are just below the thin outer layer of skin so flies and skin parasites can be very irritating to them.
Before a rhino enters a mud wallow, it will use its horn, snout and front feet to stir it up. If the mud is too thick, they will leave that wallow and look for another one that is more suitable. Wallowing will last up to several hours depending on the air temperature. Rhinos are not comfortable in deep water and seem to prefer either the edge of a deep pan or else a shallow pan that is between 12 - 23 inches (30 - 60cm) deep. If they use the edge of a deep pan, which serves to increase the overall size of the pan benefiting many species. The larger the pan gets, the more wildlife will take advantage of it. Terrapins live in many of the pans and are very useful in biting ticks off the rhino's skin. It is amazing to watch as they dodge the rolling body of a rhino as they dine. Many first-hand observers will say without a doubt, rhinos simply enjoy the "art of wallowing". Wallows serve as a social gathering place and they will share the wallow experience with other animals such as water buffalo and warthogs, seldom showing aggression. They usually visit wallows in the late afternoon or evening when it is cooler and they tend to wallow more during times of warmer weather. Rhinos also like to rub themselves on trees and boulders to help remove external parasites. In the African bush a particular log or boulder might serve as a favorite rubbing post and will be worn smooth and shiny with repeated use. Oxpeckers, small African birds, are often seen removing ticks from the rhinos skin and also are important in warning them of approaching danger. Sometimes, however, oxpeckers can become an irritation to the rhino if they pick in open sores not allowing them to heal over.
The range of a white rhino is 4-10sq mi (10-25sq km), however that may double up to 20sq mi (50sq km) if population density is low. Female ranges will greatly overlap and they show no signs of being territorial. When female white rhinos meet, perhaps at a watering hole, they will greet each other with nose to nose touching and sometimes they will rub their horns together. Subadults will also greet adult females, other subadults and calves with the nose to nose touching also.
Adult white rhinos tend to be solitary, except for the adult mother with her most recent offspring. Animals that are not yet mature sometimes join up in pairs or form temporary groups which may number up to 14 at a time. Sometimes an adult female with a calf will allow an adolescent to join the two of them; and seldom is the female the mother of the joining adolescent. Adult white rhino females, who do not have calves, are often quite tolerant of younger animals associating with them.
The dominant males live in clearly defined territories that they vigorously defend against other neighboring males. The territorial boundaries are often coincidental to features in the landscape such as water features, large rocks, etc. The individual home ranges are marked with urine by the bull. He sprays the urine backwards with great force and control, yet it is a relatively fine spray which will cover the bushes or grass in the area with small white droplets. Subordinate bulls are tolerated in a dominant males territory as long as they remain submissive.
The spoor of the white rhino is larger than that of the black rhino. Their dung, which is similar in texture and size to that of an elephant, is deposited in large heaps, known as middens and they are used to mark territorial boundaries. These heaps are a distinctive site in the African bush.
Rhinos do make noises that vary from puffing sounds, snorts, a deep but quiet roar (not like a lion), squeals and shrieks. White rhino males will particularly emit high pitched squeal when trying to keep an estrus cow from leaving his territory. Snorts, honks and roars are used to maintain spacing between animals. Loud shrieks are used defensively and the squeak-pant is made by bulls that are chasing away other rhinos. When courtship occurs the male will make a soft hiccup-panting sound. These noises are generally only heard in the wild when there is no human disturbance, however sometimes in captivity under special circumstances, a zookeeper will hear them. (Be sure to listen to the sounds on our Black Rhino page)
DIET:
The white rhino is herbivorous and prefers short grasses up to about 50.8 inches (20 cm) high. They feed on different types of palatable grasses depending on what species is available in their habitat at any given time of the year. It feeds largely on grasses such as Pennisetum, Panicum, Urochloa and Digiteria, but according to research done in 1990 by Smithers, the white rhino prefers the type Panicum maximum. They will carefully avoid unpalatable grasses. The food that they eat is low in energy, so they eat for long periods of the day. A rhino will eat between 27-37 lb. (60-80 kg) a day and will spend about 50% of its daylight hours feeding. Sometimes they are seen eating soil, particularly around termite mounds where they obtain certain minerals not otherwise available to them.
In the Zoo they are fed zoo ration, alfalfa hay, trace mineral, salt, and water -- free choice. Their bodies cannot absorb animal fat, so if a rhino baby has to be hand raised and bottle fed, it is important that they be given skim (no fat) milk.
REPRODUCTION and GROWTH:
Male white rhinos become sexually mature at about 7 to 8 years old, but are prevented from breeding until they can claim their first territory or attain dominant status at about 10 years of age.
The female rhinoceros is sexually mature at 7 years of age; the male takes longer, becoming mature at the age of 10 to12 years. Mating can occur at any time during the year, but tends to be higher during the rainy season, which results in babies being born during the early part of the dry season. Rhinos are promiscuous, rarely forming even a semi permanent pair. The gestation period is about 16 months), when usually one young is born. A second birth may occur as early as 22 months later, but usually the next birth is between 2 and 4 years later. When a female is about to give birth, she will drive away her previous offspring; the usual age for the offspring at this time is 2 to 3 years of age. This is when temporary groups form.
A rhino calf is relatively small at birth, weighing approximately 140 pounds (65kg). If a female is associating with a particular group, she will separate herself from them to give birth. Born throughout the year, they will begin nibbling on grass at about 3 months old, however the baby will nurse more than one year. At the time of birth, preceding the production of true milk by the mother, she produces colostrum or foremilk for the babys first feeding. It contains essential antibodies and minerals that are necessary to give the baby a strong immune system. The mothers milk is extremely important in keeping the baby healthy through the tough times of sparse vegetation during the dry season. The baby rhino will make a squealing noise when it wants to nurse. The calf will also continue to strengthen its immune system by wallowing in mud.
By the time the baby is 3 days old it can walk with its mother. Mother rhinos are very protective of their young. In the wild, white rhino calves usually run in front of the mother, whereas black rhino calves usually trot behind their mothers. This behavior is a function of the different types of habitat in which they live. In wide open grasslands the white rhino mother can better offer protection for her calf against feline predators if the baby is in front of her, versus closed in woodlands where black rhino mothers must forge the trail and protect the baby against surprise ambushes.
The white rhino can live up to 45 in the wild and up to 60 years in captivity.
CONSERVATION:
Both the white and black rhinoceros are flagship taxon for biodiversity loss in Africa. When biodiversity is lost there are enormous consequences for humanity from both the bio-ethical standpoint and economic losses. In developing countries important social and economic opportunities are lost when flora and fauna resources disappear. Read more about the Regional Project for the Conservation of Rhinos SADC Region.
By 1895, the white rhinoceros was considered extinct throughout its African range; however there was a small population of 20 to 50 animals that was still living in the Umfolozi region of South Africa. Rhino populations were decimated by uncontrolled hunting and poaching during the colonial period and second to that was the destruction of habitat for farming and settlements. Farmers considered all rhinos as pests that needed to be eliminated. What are some of the reasons for the dramatic decline in white rhino populations?
Hunting. Uncontrolled and wasteful big game hunting took a heavy toll on all the rhino populations and other big game during the colonial period throughout Africa.White rhinos were already decimated when Theodore Roosevelt went Africa with 600 porters and professional hunters in the early 1900s to collect specimens for museums in the United States. They killed over 500 animals and shipped their heads and skins home. Soon after, the Prince of Wales went on an extensive hunting safari to Africa, which popularized safari hunting even more. And in Kenya, the rail line from the coast to Nairobi was completed making big game more accessible to hunting expeditions. Safari hunting became the rage throughout Africa. In the eastern African countries the black rhinos suffered heavy losses
Horn. Rhino horn was used as early as 618 A.D. to make ornamental drinking cups in China which could detect poisons. Poisoning was an often used non-bloody way of getting rid of your rivals or enemies; therefore it was a good idea if you had some way of detecting it in your own drink. Poisons used at the time were strong alkaloids and are thought to react with the keratin and gelatin that the rhino horn is made from, producing effervescent bubbles. The cups were used in Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist and Christian cultures from Central Africa to China. In Africa the main centers for production of cups was in Sudan and Ethiopia.
There were many other things that were carved from rhino horns as ornamental art such as bowls, spoons, brush pots for artists, netsuke (mens kimono fastener) in Japan, the handles of canes, boxes, jewelry and elaborate carvings. The 1800s was a major export period for rhino horn and items can still be found in various antique shops throughout Europes major cities and in New York. Prices in these antique shops range from about $900 to $5,000 for ornamental objects made of rhino horn.
Dagger Handles. The Jambiya or dagger with a carved handle is worn by all men and boys over 11 years of age in Yemen and in a number of the other Gulf Countries. The jambiya with a carved handle of rhino horn carries the greatest cultural significance and is a sign of great prestige. This has been the most enduring ornamental use of rhino horn. When carved is has an amber translucency that improves with handling, developing a special patina over time, unlike other materials that deteriorate with age. It is this quality that has kept rhino horn on the top of the most wanted list. The most skilled carvers of rhino horn are in Yemen. 5 handles can be carved from 41/2 pounds (2 kg).
Even though dagger handles have been a part of Gulf culture for a very long time, it was the discovery of huge oil field in the Middle East along with the vast wealth it created, that drove the demand. There was a 20-fold rise in the price of rhino horn and had devastating effects, especially on black rhino populations. During the 1970s almost 40% of all rhino horn on the world market was imported to Northern Yemen. In 1978 a top quality hand carved jambiya sold for $12,000(US).
The oil price collapse in the mid-1980s, combined with cultural priorities and the government instituting high penalties for the use of rhino horn demand has lessened. The government of Yemen tried unsuccessfully to halt the trade in rhino horn beginning in 1982. It wasnt until Yemen eventually signed on as a party to CITES in 1997, combined with and the Grand Mufti issuing a Fatwa (an Islamic edict), saying it was against the will of Islam to kill rhinos in for dagger handles that things changed dramatically. Better protection against poaching in the protected parks has also helped reduce rhino horn trade, but it has not stopped. As long as poachers still have access to the rhinos in poorly protected parks and a wealthy buyer on the other end the slaughter will continue. Today, most carved handles are made from cheaper alternative materials such as water buffalo horn. A very good synthetic rhino horn product was developed, but it is very expensive alternative.
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